Marie Antoinette, Queen Executed in French Revolution

Marie Antoinette (born Maria Antonia Josepha Joanna von Ãâ€"sterreich-Lothringen; November 2,  1755–October 16,  1793) was the queen of France, executed by guillotine during the French Revolution. She is most known for supposedly saying Let them eat cake, although the French quote translates more precisely as, Let them eat brioche, and there is no proof that she said this. She was reviled by the French public for her lavish spending. Until her death, she  supported the monarchy against reforms and against the French Revolution. Fast Facts: Marie Antoinette Known For:  As the queen of Louis XVI, she was executed during the French Revolution. She is often quoted as saying, Let them eat cake (there is no proof of this statement).Also Known As:  Maria Antonia Josepha Joanna von Ãâ€"sterreich-LothringenBorn:  November 2, 1755  in Vienna (now in Austria)Parents: Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, and Austrian Empress Maria TheresaDied:  October 16, 1793 in Paris, FranceEducation: Private palace tutors  Spouse: King Louis XVI of FranceChildren: Marie-Thà ©rà ¨se-Charlotte, Louis Joseph Xavier Franà §ois, Louis Charles, Sophie Hà ©là ¨ne Bà ©atrice de FranceNotable Quote: I am calm, as people are whose consciences are clear. Early Life and Marriage to Louis XVI Marie Antoinette was born in Austria, the 15th of 16 children born to Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, and Austrian Empress Maria Theresa. She was born on the same day as the famous earthquake of Lisbon. From birth, she lived the life of wealthy royalty, educated by private tutors in music and languages. As with most royal daughters, Marie Antoinette was promised in marriage in order to build a diplomatic alliance between her birth family and the family of her husband. Her sister Maria Carolina was married to Ferdinand IV, King of Naples, for similar reasons. In 1770 at age 14, Marie Antoinette married the French dauphin Louis, grandson of Louis XV of France. He ascended the throne in 1774 as Louis XVI. Life as Queen Marie Antoinette was welcomed in France at first. Her charisma and lightness contrasted with the withdrawn and uninspiring personality of her husband. After her mother died in 1780, she became more extravagant, which led to growing resentment. The French were also suspicious of her ties to Austria and her influence on King Louis XVI in attempting to foster policies friendly to Austria. Marie Antoinette, formerly welcomed, became vilified for her spending habits and her opposition to reforms. The 1785–1786 Affair of the Diamond Necklace further discredited her and reflected poorly on the monarchy. In this scandal, she was accused of having an affair with a cardinal in order to obtain a costly diamond necklace. After an initial slow start at the expected role of child-bearer—her husband apparently had to be coached in his role in this—Marie Antoinette gave birth to her first child, a daughter, in 1778, and sons in 1781 and 1785. By most accounts, she was a devoted mother.  Paintings of the family stressed her domestic role. Marie Antoinette and the French Revolution After the Bastille was stormed on July 14, 1789, the queen urged the king to resist the Assemblys reforms, making her even more unpopular and leading to the unproven attribution to her of the remark, Quils mangent de la brioche!— often translated as Let them eat cake! The phrase was actually first seen in print in Jean-Jacques Rousseaus The Confessions, written before Marie Antoinette was queen. In October 1789, the royal couple was forced to move from Versailles to Paris. Two years later, the attempted escape of the royal couple from Paris was stopped at Varennes on October 21, 1791. This failed escape was reportedly planned by Marie Antoinette. Imprisoned with the king, Marie Antoinette continued to plot. She hoped for foreign intervention to end the revolution and free the royal family. She urged her brother, the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II, to intervene, and she supported a French declaration of war against Austria in April 1792, which she hoped would result in the defeat of France. Her unpopularity helped lead to the overthrow of the monarchy when Parisians stormed the Tuileries Palace on August 10, 1792, followed by the establishment of the First French Republic in September. The family was imprisoned in the Temple on August 13, 1792, and moved to the Conciergerie on August 1, 1793. The family made several attempts to escape, but all failed. Death Louis XVI was executed in January 1793, and Marie Antoinette was executed by the guillotine on October 16 of that year. She was charged with aiding the enemy and inciting civil war. Legacy The role Marie Antoinette played in French governmental affairs, both domestic and foreign, was likely greatly exaggerated. She was particularly disappointing to her brother, the Holy Roman Emperor, for her inability to further Austrian interests in France. Her lavish spending, furthermore, did not significantly contribute to Frances economic troubles before the revolution. Marie Antoinette, however, remains an enduring symbol, around the world and across history, of the extravagance of monarchy and aristocracy—against which revolutionaries define their ideals. Sources Castelot, Andrà ©. Queen of France: A Biography of Marie Antoinette. Harper Collins, 1957.Fraser, Antonia.  Marie Antoinette: The Journey. Anchor Books, 2001.Thomas, Chantal The Wicked Queen: The Origins of the Myth of Marie-Antoinette. Zone Books, 1999.

Plastic Defining The Causes Of The Current Plastic...

Pretty in Plastic: Defining The Causes of The Current Plastic Surgery Epidemic There are many reasons why someone may want to change his or her physical appearance, and many of these reasons are out of people s control. Cosmetic practices and plastic surgery have become more pervasive in modern day society. Plastic surgery is defined as any cosmetic procedure that allows one to reconstruct his or her physical appearance. Although plastic surgery has some benefits, such as the ability to reconstruct genetic deformities that one has no control over, many of the people who undergo plastic surgery do it for non-essential reasons. Plastic surgery can authentic an individual s goals for beauty if it is necessary, and as long as the individual has higher self-confidence and a higher sense of self. Though this is typically not the case, many of these reasons range from different media and cultural along with societal influences, to an insufficient sense of self, and paired with certain psychological disorders. They opt in favor of cosmetic procedures for a variety of d ifferent reasons, characteristically not the right ones, which leaves room for different risks and drawbacks. Plastic surgery, Hollywood, and celebrities often come hand in hand. Fabricated images of beauty are seen everywhere in the media. What is not seen is the extensive amount of work this ideal image often has behind it; there is frequently a process that takes place. Aesthetic practices that make someone lookShow MoreRelatedSocial Media And Its Impact On The 21st Century Society2088 Words   |  9 Pagestodays emerging adults are fundamentally selfish as a consequence of overindulgent behaviour or the influence of a surge in social media, therefore posing a danger to society and to their own futures. 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Law and Legal Instrumentalism Free Essays

Law, a set of coherent rules and values within a society, is a human process. As such, it is crucial to approach its application within society in a pragmatic and realistic sense rather than a formal one, which views law as a set of mechanical and abstract principles. A legal realist approach on law takes into account extra-legal factors which help shape how law is used within a social context. We will write a custom essay sample on Law and Legal Instrumentalism or any similar topic only for you Order Now This approach does not view the discipline of law as a literal set of principles to be formally detected and applied, but recognizes that the interpretation of law by legal actors is manipulated by situational factors. BrianTamanaha in Law as a Means to an End: Threat to the Rule of Law examines how law, originally understood as an â€Å"instrumental to serve the social good†, is now just a mere instrument to further the goals and agendas of those who have access in its use (Tamanaha, 4). In essence, the notion of a common â€Å"social good† is no longer a qualifiable condition of law. In a complex, multi-faceted society, it is optimistic to presume that there is a true identifiable social good. Thus, lawyers, legislatures, judges and other legal actors are capable of using law to further their personal or collective political, social and economic interests. Tamanaha examines the ways in which legal actors, specifically cause litigants and judges, instrumentally exercise law. Thus, the term instrumentalism, a form of legal realism, is a pragmatic method which stems away from a formal application of law by critically examining cause litigation and judicial activism. Although law may be used as a mechanism to achieve a certain outcome, it is not used lawlessly and without merit as lawyers are advocating for a broad social cause and judges use law based on the merits of the constitution, given the benefit of time and postulated reason of their decision making. Brown, a case regarding segregation within the United States emerged with lawyers stirring up lawsuits by informing African American citizens of their legal rights (Tamanaha 159). The process of instigating litigation was previously prohibited in common law practice; it was not professionally ethical for lawyers to set lawsuits in motion. However, it became increasingly common for lawyers to achieve change in public policy and legislation by fighting for a specific cause within the judicial arena. This ethod was forward-looking in that the courts became a battle field for interest groups seeking remedial change; the decision of the law was not necessarily to compensate for any harm inflicted in the past, but to change the policy in the future. This expansion from the traditional bilateral litigation no longer was to award the affected parties with compensation, but became a method to attain a reformative decree (Tamanaha 161). Eventually, cause litigation was an encouraged means to a dvance societal goals, in the sectors of environment protection, political reform and mental health, to name a few (Tamanaha 160). Although such issues of public policy appear to benefit society as a whole, the intent of the cause lawyers who instigate such legal actions is questionable to Tamanaha. The lawyers in these situations are no longer amoral technicians of law, but individuals who seek their own ideological implementation (Tamanaha 156). The cause which lawyers strive towards becomes the primary concern, whereas the clients themselves are secondary, fulfilling the standing requirement before the court (Tamanaha 156). This can be very detrimental to the clients because they may not be aware of the consequences of their legal actions. For instance, Baehr v. Lewin, 1993 was a successful lawsuit brought forth to legalize same-sex marriage in Hawaii. Although the litigants won, the ultimate consequence was detrimental; following it was a series of amendments nation-wide which prohibited same-sex marriage (Tamanaha 167). The battlefield within the court became not a place to determine legal rights, but a remedial catalyst in public policy. Such political battles focus on adversarial ideologies rather than legal rules and merit. However, the work of cause litigants cannot be narrowly categorized as one that is purely self-serving. More often than not, cause lawyers instigate lawsuits by informing the oppressed and disadvantaged of their rights. By doing so, they use law to encourage political change to the otherwise uninformed public. These causes often grow to become social movements as it â€Å"provides the basis for a sustained series of interactions between power holders and persons successfully claiming to speak on behalf of a constituency lacking formal representation (Austin 2)†. This formal epresentation demands change from the power holders with a strong backing of social support. Often, these groups lack the resources and skills which lawyers can provide, offering their advice to enlighten the marginalized group to â€Å"initiate and nurture political mobilization† (Austin 4). The instrumental use of law by judges is immensely threatening to the judicial system and to a democratic soc iety as a whole. Judges who use law to achieve a certain outcome undermines the rule of law. The legal system requires that judges be objective arbitrators of the law. As independent bodies, it is essential that they remain impartial in their decision making and delegate based on rule, and not personal preferences (Tamanaha 227). This is a crucial aspect of the rule of law, which binds the action of the state to pre-fixed rules, placing judges equal under and before the law, just as all other subjects of society. The rule of law ensures transparency and predictability which prevents the government from ruling coercively. It is an essential component to a democratic state. However, when judges decide a cases, they may be inclined to achieve a particular result. In essence, they are using laws to achieving another end, namely one that strengthens their own ideological beliefs and interests. Whether it is a certain political philosophy or a particular social policy which they seek, arbitrarily decided cases and manipulated law enforcement defeats the characteristics of the judicial branch of the state. Because there is no particular hierarchy of values, judges are able to promote some while extinguishing others. The general terms of legal rules allows judges to focus on the consequences of their decision. Their decisions will naturally be based on their political affiliations or ideological tendencies. Consequently, it is difficult to believe that judges are truly impartial in decision making. The result of judicial activism is that private attitudes become public law (Tamanaha 234). Furthermore, the procedural process of the case takes a backwards approach; the decision is made first, then it is justified by the legal rules which judges find applicable (Tamanaha 236) Nevertheless, there is a certain form of procedure which judges are bound to. Although values are not ranked hierarchically, there are two forms of rights obtained from the constitution: specified rights and secondary rights (Bork 17). The latter is of utmost importance as it addresses the values held by the constitution, such as the right to vote or procedures in criminal processing, all which the courts need to protect (Bork 17). The former alludes to the principled rules which the original framers of the text intended to convey (Bork 17). Because constitutional law does not have a concrete theoretical premise on which adjudicators are required to base their decision making processes on, they are founded on neutral principles. That is, issues are addressed based on general principles postulated on reason to ensure that conflicting values are not lawlessly chosen over one another (Bork 2). Granted, there are adversaries in the legal principles to which judges ascribe. Therefore, it is critical for the judges to recognize that in deciding cases, they are setting legal precedent, and therefore should have a firm belief that the values being applied are done so lawfully. These beliefs are in relation to the legal system as a whole, not their personal preferences (Bork 2). Ultimately, Bork’s concern lies not with the decisions made by judges but what makes their decisions legitimate. The courts essentially work as advocates for the minority who otherwise would have no say on the issue at hand. Helping the powerless realize their rights is a form of advocacy that judges take. It is not about undermining the rule of law, but giving opportunity to access the law (Bork 3). Nevertheless, it is crucial for judges to base their decisions off of neutral principles; just as principles and values cannot be applied lawlessly, they just the same cannot be defined lawlessly (Bork 8). The critical examination of judicial review goes beyond it’s obvious implications and expositions of undermining the rule of rule. It is unfair to presume that judges are completely unreasoned in their decision making. There is a level of predictability as judges are bound to legal precedent and cannot decide cases in an tyrannical manner. Although the courts are not elected officials who are granted the power to delegitimize legislation, they are in many ways better equipped in making such decisions. For instance, the courts are distanced from political or social pressure allows them to make sound decisions in a timely matter. Elected officials tend to act on expediency and pressure when it comes to making value-based decisions (Bickel 25). Essentially, they are inclined towards one side of the issue in order to appeal to the interest of the predominate voters, as opposed to abiding to the fundamental values of law (Bickel 25). Judges on the other hand make decisions far from societal pressures, with more leeway in terms of time. This gives the courts the ability to make more calculated decisions, taking into consideration not only the fundamental values of the state but also the unforeseen implications of a decision. (Bickel 26) In dealing with the pith and substance of a case, decisions are argued to be â€Å"sober second thoughts† (Bickel 26). Ultimately, the use of law within a judicial context by judges and lawyers is not an arbitrarily unfair process. Such legal actors are bound to the values of the laws within society. Such values are premised on the rule of law, the foundational concept of a democratic society. Cause litigants are often involved in social issues and advocate for those who require a formal delegate. These cause lawyers may use law in such a way to achieve a certain outcome, but this outcome results in change in public policy to those who are otherwise be unaware of their legal rights. Moreover, although judges may have their own social desires and political preferences, they cannot easily sway towards them. Their professional duty requires them to be consciously rule-bound and rely on the precedent. Further, the basis of their decision is on neutral principles. Such principles are not vague and abstract, but stem from the precedent of previous judges in common law. Instrumentalism is pragmatic in that it recognizes that law is not a math; there is not a formula which judges rely on. However, social movements and changes through the judiciary ensures that fresh insight is continuously brought about within society, giving room for social change and progress. How to cite Law and Legal Instrumentalism, Essays

Strategic direction free essay sample

The change process encompasses all activities aimed at helping the organization to successfully adopt new attitudes, new technologies and new ways of doing business . Effective change management enables the transformation of strategy, processes , technology and people to refocus the organization to achieve its objectives, maximize performance and ensure continuous improvement in an environment of ever-changing business . Forces for and against change . New technology competition Forecasts of supervisors FORCES TO KEEP THE INITIAL STATE: Complacency of group members Fear of change Well-learned skills Organizational Change It is defined as : the ability to adapt to different organizations transformations suffered by the average internal or external environment through learning . Another definition is: the set of structural changes suffered by organizations and that result in a new organizational behavior. The changes are caused by the interaction of forces , these are classified as: †¢ Internal : those that come from within the organization , from the analysis of organizational behavior and are presented as alternative solutions , representing equilibrium conditions, creating the need for structural change order; example of which is the technological upgrades , change of methodological strategies , policy changes , etc. We will write a custom essay sample on Strategic direction or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page External : those that come from outside the organization , creating the need for changes in internal order, are examples of this force : Government regulations , quality standards , limitations in physical and economic environment. Models of Organizational Change Regarding change models , ie , processes or procedures by which the changes are put into practice , there are various classifications Moreno ( 2007) , outlines three models of change , Change Model Lewis Model of change Models systematic change Organizational Development , among others. Kurt Lewin, considered one of the pioneers in the development of models of organizational change, which laid the foundation for many years has supported research and action systems in the field, makes the three-step model ( Sandoval, 2011) Process of change model Kurt Lewin Change model Lewis Defrost , change movement refreeze For Lewin thaw the term refers to the time at which or the persons or organizations are convinced the change and decide to enter the transformation process. Therefore, the results from evaluating defrost settings the company to the current environment and preparing for the future, which will establish the diagnosis change. As mentioned Sandoval (2011 ) Grourad , Meston and Schein (1996 ) can be divided into three sub-phases defrost : breakdown , anxiety and security. The purpose of the change or movement as proposed by Lewin model is to guide the organization towards the desired state .. The passage mentions refreeze Lewin is the institutionalization of the changes so that all people know them, meet them and take in their daily activity. Instilling a sense of urgency . Talk about the importance of knowing in advance the motivation that led the company to make the change, Create the guiding coalition . a large number of people , eliminate key obstacles, generate short -term wins, lead and manage dozens of change projects and new approaches rooted in the culture of the organization, which requires a strong guiding coalition that has the suitable trust and shared purpose (Moreno 2007). Developing a strategic vision. For Kotter Vision refers to a picture of the future with some implicit or explicit about why people should strive to create that future reviews. Communicate the change vision . Those leading change must find the best communication strategies to facilitate their transition. Barriers Blocking . Attack four major obstacles : the structures , skills , systems and supervisors Short-term gains , whose objectives are to provide evidence that the sacrifices are appreciated , reward change agents Support change. What is going to be implanted with achieving strong links and look ahead to keep getting achievements Embed new approaches to culture. According to Kotter only change when filtered prevails in organizational corporate culture , culture is powerful for three main reasons: individuals carefully selected , because states through the actions of hundreds or thousands of people , and because all this happens without a conscious intention and therefore difficult to challenge or even discuss the fact . Exchange Structure . : Reorder your internal systems . Changes in technology Changes in people Changing the organizational culture Change of structure : Reorder internal systems Classic Organizational Design : responsibilities , divisions, lines Performance . Decentralization : smaller organizational units , structures and technologies Adaptation Amendment of workflow and specialties Grouping function meeting people different Technological change : †¢ Change equipment : tools, equipment, process engineering , production techniques , etc. . †¢ Automation and computerization Diagnosis Engineering work Rotation of jobs Extension of work Enrichment Task Change in people At first it is only an intellectual understanding , a concept incorporated in the mind. But sometimes requires long long time for this new knowledge to penetrate the emotions and heart . While intellectual understanding is crucial , the change can only be completed when and what is understood by intellectual means is captured emotionally and begins to penetrate ever deeper into the psyche. And to take this step , it is very common to see that when someone exceeds an affective blockade discover that behind him others are hidden . Cultural Change †¢ Organizational culture : shared meanings among members of an organization that dictates how they should behave . Cultural Analysis Threatened Survival New Leadership Reorganization New story and ritual Change selection processes , and systems evaluation socialization Causes of Resistance to Change Uncertainty about the wedges and effects of change, fear of losing something currently aware of weaknesses in the proposed changes has Techniques for reducing resistance to change 1. Education and communication Two . Participation and active intervention Three . Facilitation and support ( counseling , therapy, new skills training , leave of absence , early retirement ) April . Negotiation . Handling covert attempts to influence others (change the facts , create false rumors 6 . Coercion Change management : 1. Diagnosis of the situation a. Formulation of the problem b . Getting information c . Analysis of information d . Derivation of suggestion Two . Selection rate Three . Strategy to use a. facilitators b . informative c . attitudinal d . policies conclusion Organizational change is a signature required in our times required for the new globalizing world scheme ; companies have been facing for some time to situations that we would never have imagined ago. The disadvantages of this new model are for developing countries like ours ; is difficult to compete with the economies of the first world, where deprives a different culture and more attached to the current economic requirements ; who are leading companies are now required to prepare more and better to do battle in the war of survival; is a priority awareness regarding the need for change in organizations, a shift that points to the fundamental axis : human capital. It is important to adopt our philosophy considering that the only thing that should remain unchanged in the universe is change.